International Journal of Supply and Operations Management

International Journal of Supply and Operations Management

Reinforcement Learning for Blockchain-Enabled Supply Chain Network Design

Articles in Press

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors
Sara Hasheminezhad 1
Mahsa Moayed 1
Ardavan Babaei 1
Erfan Babaee Tirkolaee 2
1 Faculty of Industrial Engineering, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
2 Department of Industrial Engineering, Istinye University, Istanbul, Turkey and Department of Mechanics and Mathematics, Western Caspian University, Baku, Azerbaijan
10.22034/ijsom.2026.111012.3553
Abstract
Objective: The objective of this study is to examine the optimal design of blockchain-enabled supply chain networks using reinforcement learning (RL). The goal is to develop an integrated network framework considering simultaneously supply chain connectivity, blockchain node activation and cross-layer integration decisions, to minimize the total network cost under operational constraints.
Methods: The problem is formulated as a combinatorial optimization problem and modeled as a two-layer network of supply chain entities and blockchain nodes. A Q-learning framework is used to explore feasible network configurations in the presence of stochastic costs. The model includes various cost factors, connectivity requirements, constraints for blockchain activation, and penalty mechanisms to ensure feasible solutions.
Results: The results of experiments show that the proposed RL-based method is able to find out the cost-effective network designs in accordance with network connectivity constraints. The convergence behavior is shown to be stable throughout different runs, and the method converges within an earlier stage of training. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the increment of minimum number of active blockchain nodes will increase the cost of the designed network, highlighting the trade-off between blockchain deployment requirements and economic efficiency. The resulting network structure turns out to be feasible, connected, and interpretable.
Conclusion: Based on the findings, the research proves the feasibility of applying reinforcement learning to blockchain-enabled supply chain network design problems. The proposed framework provides an approach that can be utilized evaluating blockchain integration strategies and balancing implementation costs with operational requirements. The research further creates a base for further research involving larger-scale networks, dynamic environments, and multi-objective optimization settings.
Keywords
blockchain technology
supply chain management
reinforcement learning
Q-learning
optimization
Subjects
Abualigah, L., Hanandeh, E. S., Zitar, R. A., Thanh, C. L., Khatir, S., & Gandomi, A. H. (2023). Revolutionizing sustainable supply chain management: A review of metaheuristics. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 126, 106839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engappai.2023.106839
Asghari, M., Afshari, H., Mirzapour Al-E-Hashem, S. M. J., Fathollahi-Fard, A. M., & Dulebenets, M. A. (2022). Pricing and advertising decisions in a direct-sales closed-loop supply chain. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 171, 108439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2022.108439
Azzi, R., Chamoun, R. K., & Sokhn, M. (2019). The power of a blockchain-based supply chain. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 135, 582-592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2019.06.042
Babaei, A., Khedmati, M., Akbari Jokar, M. R., & Tirkolaee, E. B. (2023). Designing an integrated blockchain-enabled supply chain network under uncertainty. Scientific Reports, 13(1), 3928. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-30439-9
Babaei, A., Tirkolaee, E. B., & Ali, S. S. (2024b). Innovative supply chain network design with two-step authentication and environmentally-friendly blockchain technology. Annals of Operations Research, 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-024-05950-5
Babaei, A., Tirkolaee, E. B., & Amjadian, A. (2024c). Crafting efficient blockchain adoption strategies under risk and uncertain environments. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 103, 137-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2024.05.106
Babaei, A., Khedmati, M., & Jokar, M. R. A. (2025a). A new model for production and distribution planning based on data envelopment analysis with respect to traffic congestion, Blockchain technology and uncertain conditions. Annals of Operations Research, 348(3), 1145-1181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-023-05349-8
Babaei, A., Khedmati, M., Jokar, M. R. A., & Tirkolaee, E. B. (2025b). Product tracing or component tracing? Blockchain adoption in a two-echelon supply chain management. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 200, 110789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2024.110789
Babaei, A., Tirkolaee, E. B., Kia, R., & Sezer, N. S. (2025c). Assessing the efficiency of blockchain adoption in renewable energy supply chains in ideal and non-ideal scenarios. Energy, 330, 136782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.136782
Bhutani. A., & Wadhwani. P. (2019, November 13). Global Blockchain Market Size to hit $25 Bn by 2025. Gminsights.https://www.gminsights.com/pressrelease/blockchainmarket?utm_source=PrNewswire.com&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=Paid_PrNewswire
Choi, T. M. (2023). Supply chain financing using blockchain: Impacts on supply chains selling fashionable products. Annals of Operations Research, 331(1), 393-415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-020-03615-7
Çıkmak, S., Kantoğlu, B., & Kırbaç, G. (2024). Evaluation of the effects of blockchain technology characteristics on SCOR model supply chain performance measurement attributes using an integrated fuzzy MCDM methodology. International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications, 27(6), 1015-1045. https://doi.org/10.1080/13675567.2023.2193736
Dehshiri, S. J. H., & Amiri, M. (2024). Evaluation of blockchain implementation solutions in the sustainable supply chain: A novel hybrid decision approach based on Z-numbers. Expert Systems with Applications, 235, 121123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2023.121123
Deloitte. (2021). “Deloitte’s 2021 Global Blockchain Survey”. Deloitte. https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/topics/understanding-blockchain-potential/global-blockchain-survey.html
Dobrovnik, M., Herold, D. M., Fürst, E., & Kummer, S. (2018). Blockchain for and in Logistics: What to Adopt and Where to Start. Logistics, 2(3), 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/logistics2030018
Dutta, P., Choi, T. M., Somani, S., & Butala, R. (2020). Blockchain technology in supply chain operations: Applications, challenges and research opportunities. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 142, 102067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tre.2020.102067
Fan, C., Lin, C., Khazaei, H., & Musilek, P. (2022, August). Performance analysis of hyperledger besu in private blockchain. In 2022 IEEE international conference on decentralized applications and infrastructures (DAPPS) (pp. 64-73). IEEE  https://doi.org/10.1109/DAPPS55202.2022.00016
Goli, A. (2023). Integration of blockchain-enabled closed-loop supply chain and robust product portfolio design. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 179, 109211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2023.109211
Gujar. S., Kshirsagar. R. (2024, August). Blockchain in Logistics Market Size. Gminsights. https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/blockchain-in-logistics-market
Kamilaris, A., Fonts, A., & Prenafeta-Boldύ, F. X. (2019). The rise of blockchain technology in agriculture and food supply chains. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 91, 640-652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.07.034
Khokhar, R. H., Rankothge, W., Rashidi, L., Mohammadian, H., Ghorbani, A., Frei, B., ... & Freitas, I. (2024). A survey on supply chain management: Exploring physical and cyber security challenges, threats, critical applications, and innovative technologies. International Journal of Supply and Operations Management, 11(3), 250-283. https://doi.org/10.22034/IJSOM.2024.110219.2975
Longo, F., Nicoletti, L., & Padovano, A. (2017). Smart operators in industry 4.0: A human-centered approach to enhance operators’ capabilities and competencies within the new smart factory context. Computers & industrial engineering, 113, 144-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2017.09.016
Marr, B. (2018). How blockchain will transform the supply chain and logistics industry. Retrieved February, 22, 2018.
Min, H. (2019). Blockchain technology for enhancing supply chain resilience. Business Horizons, 62(1), 35-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.012
Moosavi, J., Naeni, L.M., Fathollahi-Fard, A.M. et al. RETRACTED ARTICLE: Blockchain in supply chain management: a review, bibliometric, and network analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res 33, 5760 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13094-3
Pournader, M., Shi, Y., Seuring, S., & Koh, S. L. (2020). Blockchain applications in supply chains, transport and logistics: A systematic review of the literature. International Journal of Production Research, 58(7), 2063-2081. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2019.1650976
Queiroz, M. M., Telles, R., & Bonilla, S. H. (2020). Blockchain and supply chain management integration: A systematic review of the literature. Supply chain management: An International Journal, 25(2), 241-254. https://doi.org/10.1108/SCM-03-2018-0143
Rahmanzadeh, S., Pishvaee, M. S., & Rasouli, M. R. (2020). Integrated innovative product design and supply chain tactical planning within a blockchain platform. International Journal of Production Research, 58(7), 2242-2262. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2019.1651947
Rajabi-Kafshgar, A., Gholian-Jouybari, F., Seyedi, I., & Hajiaghaei-Keshteli, M. (2023). Utilizing hybrid metaheuristic approach to design an agricultural closed-loop supply chain network. Expert Systems with Applications, 217, 119504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2023.119504
Salehi-Amiri, A., Zahedi, A., Akbapour, N., & Hajiaghaei-Keshteli, M. (2021). Designing a sustainable closed-loop supply chain network for walnut industry. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 141, 110821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110821
Samuel, C. N., Glock, S., Verdier, F., & Guitton-Ouhamou, P. (2021, May). Choice of ethereum clients for private blockchain: Assessment from proof of authority perspective. In 2021 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC) (pp. 1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICBC51069.2021.9461085
Santoso, J. T., Wibowo, M. C., & Raharjo, B. (2025). Trustworthiness in supply chains: Leveraging private blockchain solutions. International Journal of Supply and Operations Management, 12(2), 123-148. https://doi.org/10.22034/ijsom.2024.110372.3087
Shoaib, M., Zhang, S., Ali, H., Akbar, M. A., Hamza, M., & Rehman, W. U. (2024). Robust framework to prioritize blockchain-based supply chain challenges: The fuzzy best-worst approach for multiple criteria decision-making. Kybernetes, 53(10), 3326-3347. https://doi.org/10.1108/K-01-2023-0046
Wadhwani. P., & Ambekar. A. (2024, June). Blockchain in Agriculture and Food Supply Chain Market Size. Gminsights. https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/blockchain-in-agriculture-and-food-supply-chain-market
Zarreh, M., Khandan, M., Goli, A., Aazami, A., & Kummer, S. (2024). Integrating Perishables into Closed-Loop Supply Chains: A Comprehensive Review. Sustainability, 16(15), 6705. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156705
International Journal of Supply and Operations Management

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript
Available Online from 03 July 2026